השעון המכני של קתדרלת סולסברי

תיאור החפץ:

השעון בקתדרלת סולסברי, משנת 1386, ששם יוצרו אינו ידוע, הוא דוגמא לשעון מכני בו נקשרו שני מנגנונים יחדיו בצורה אוטומטית: מנגנון מדידת שעה מוגדרת (במקרה זה שעה בת 60 דקות) ומנגנון צלצול בפעמון, נקשרו כך שהשעה הנמדדת נודעה לציבור לפי מספר הצלצולים בפעמון. השעון הונע וווסת ע"י משקולות שנקשרו למנגנון הפעולה שלו. במקרה הנוכחי, השעון נדרש לעבור הפעלה מחודשת כל 12 שעות, כאשר כל הפעלה נמשכת שתי דקות. השעון המכני לא היה המדויק ביותר, שהרי למשכיל התאפשר למדוד את שעת היום באמצעות האסטרולב, ולא אפשר ניצול מדויק ומותאם של זמן לצרכים ספציפיים, כמו שעון החול, ששימש, למשל, למדידת משכי עינויים. הצלחת השעון טבועה בכך שמשתלבים בו המאפיינים של אמצעי מדידת הזמן השונים במכשיר אחד, היינו, עמידות, אמינות, דיוק, אוטומטיות, ופומביות. השעון המכני אף השפיע על תחומים אליהם השעונים האחרים לא חדרו. בתחומים שונים, בהם חלוקת הזמן התבססה על סימנים טבעיים, כמו מקום השמש ואורך הצל, וע"י הערכות גסות ומבוססות ניסיון, אימצו במקום, במידה רבה, את חלוקת הזמן של שעות השעון-יחידות שוות המנותקות ממקצבים טבעיים. דווקא משום שיחידות הזמן של השעון היו מופשטות ניתן היה לעצבן בצורה גמישה יותר, מה שהוכח כמעלה חיונית בקהילה העירונית הצפופה ובתעשייה המתפתחת של ימי הביניים המאוחרים.

הצבת השעון המכני במרחב הפומבי אפשרה לקהילות ולפרטים לנהל את חייהם בצורה שלא התאפשרה להם קודם, והובילה לשינוי האופי של אדמיניסטרציה ושל הכלכלה ברחבי אירופה. התאפשר לנצל את כוח האדם התעשייתי ביעילות רבה יותר, ויכולת הממשל להכתיב את הזמנים לפיהם מתנהל הציבור קיבלה משנה תוקף ופירוט. הבורגנות רבת-הממון חשה בצורה המקיפה והמידית ביותר בשינויים שהתרחשו באורח החיים המוכר עקב אימוץ השעון וההתקדמות הטכנולוגית בכלל, ובקרב חלקים ממנה התעצבה תפיסת עולם ייחודית כתוצאה מכך. השעון נתפס בעיניהם כהמצאה חדשה שנולדה כתוצאה מכושר ההמצאה האנושית, והובן שאותה טכנולוגיה היא שמאפשרת לאדם בהווה לנהל חיים טובים יותר מאבות-אבותיו. התפתחה השגה של מה שאנו עשויים לכנות "קידמה", כלומר, של היות הציוויליזציה האנושית, בכלל, והיות המוסר האנושי, בפרט, בתהליך של השתפרות הדרגתית, שמתבטאת ומתאפשרת באמצעות התקדמות טכנולוגית. ברמת הפרט, הזמן נתפס יותר ויותר כנמצא בתחום השליטה אנושית, כמשאב בר-ניהול, ולכן חיים ראויים נתפסו ככאלה בהם הזמן בהם נוהל בתבונה.

מקורות ראשוניים:

1.

“Initial ‘A’ with a Tower Clock.” Monuments historiques. Archive nationale, Paris. Accessed June 1, 2017. images.monasterium.net/illum/IllUrk/1377-05-15_Montreuil-sur-Mer.jpg.

2.

“Ms 927 Fol.17v Theological and Cardinal Virtues, from ‘Ethics, Politics and Economics’ by Aristotle.” Bibliotheque Municipale, Rouen, France / Giraudon. Accessed June 1, 2017. https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/xir165170fre/ms-927-fol17v-theological-and-cardinal-xir165170-fre/.

3.

Whereas John Coulynge, servant of John Yonge, citizen and "stokfisshmongere," was found standing, on the 30th October, 6 Richard II. [A.D. 1382], among foreigners bringing fish to London for sale at "le Stokkes," and there exposed fresh herring for sale like a foreigner, to the deceit of the Commonalty, and offered to sell six herrings for a penny, and did so sell them, although he had himself purchased the same fish the previous day at Billyngesgate at twenty-two for a penny; he was arrested and brought before the Mayor and Aldermen in the Chamber of the Guildhall. In defence he declared that on the previous day his master had sent him to Billyngesgate to buy the said fish between the hours of nine and ten o'clock, and he bought the same at twenty-two for a penny, pretending that he would salt them for himself and servants to eat; that his said master the same day told him to go to "le Stokkes" and stand among the foreigners and offer to sell the herrings at six a penny and no more, and this he did by his master's orders. The master acknowledged this to be true, and put himself on the favour of the Court. Thereupon the said John Yonge was condemned to prison for forty days for having sold fish by his servant at unlawful hours, no fish being allowed to be sold except between 11 A.M. and 1 P.M.; and further, he was ordered to stand on the pillory at Cornhulle for an hour with some of the herrings hanging from his neck for endeavouring to enhance the market. Afterwards, viz., on the 10th Nov., he was pardoned the rest of his term of imprisonment.

Sharpe, Reginald R. “Folio Clvii.” In Calendar of Letter-Books of the City of London: H, 1375-1399. London, UK: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1907. http://www.british-history.ac.uk/london-letter-books/volh/pp190-209#h3-0012.

4.

It is ordered by the Chapter of the Church of Saint Peter of York that all Masons that shall work in the works of the same Church of Saint Peter shall, from Michaelmas day [September 29] to the first Sunday of Lent, be each day in the morning at their work in the lodge (1), which is provided for the Masons at work within the area at the side of the aforesaid church, at as early an hour as they can clearly see by daylight to work. And they shall stand there faithfully working at their work all day after that, as long as they can clearly see to work, if it is a full day of work; otherwise until high noon is struck by the clock, when a holiday falls at noon, except within the aforesaid time between Michaelmas and Lent; and at all other times of the year they may dine before noon if they wish, and also eat at noon where they like, so long as they shall not remain away from their work in the aforesaid lodge, at any time of the year, at dinner time, more than such a short time that no reasonable man shall find fault with their remaining away. And in the time of eating at noon they shall, at no time of the year, be absent from the lodges, nor from their aforesaid work, over the space of an hour; and after noon they may drink in the lodge, and for their drinking time, between Michaelmas and Lent, they shall not cease nor leave their work beyond the space of time that one can walk half a mile (2). And from the first Sunday of Lent until Michaelmas they shall be in the aforesaid lodge at their work at sunrise and remain there truly and carefully working upon the aforesaid work of the church, all day, until there shall be no longer than the time that one can walk a mile before sunset, if it be a work day, otherwise until the time of noon, as was said before; except that they shall, between the first Sunday of Lent and Michaelmas, dine and eat as beforesaid, after noon in the aforesaid lodge. And they shall not cease nor leave their work in sleeping time exceeding the time in which one can walk a mile, nor in drinking time after noon beyond the same time. And they shall not sleep after noon at any time except between Saint Elemnes [probably May 3] and Lammas [August 1] (3); and if any man remain away from the lodge and from the work aforesaid, or commit offense at any time of the year against this aforesaid ordinance (4), he shall be punished by an abatement of his wages, upon the inspection and judgment of the Master Mason. And all their times and hours shall be governed by a decree established therefore. It is also ordered that no Mason shall be received at work on the work of the aforesaid church unless he is first tested for a week or more as to his good work; and if after this he is found competent for the work, he may be received by the common assent of the Master and the keepers of the work and of the Master Mason, and he must swear upon the book that he will truly and carefully, according to his power, without any kind of guile, treachery, or deceit; maintain and keep holy all the points of this aforesaid ordinance in all things that affect or may affect him, from the time that he is received in the aforesaid work, as long as he shall remain a hired Mason at the work on the aforesaid work of the church of Saint Peter and that he will not go away from that aforesaid work unless the Masters give him permission to depart from the aforesaid work. And let whoever goes against this ordinance and breaks it against the will of the aforesaid chapter have God’s curse and Saint Peter’s.

“The York Ordinances (1370).” THE OLD CHARGES. Accessed June 3, 2017. http://theoldcharges.com/chapter-5.html.

רשימת קריאה מומלצת:

1. Bourdieu, Pierre. “The Attitude of the Algerian Peasant toward Time.” In Mediterranean Countrymen, 55–72. Paris: Mouton, 1963.

2. Dohrn-van Rossum, Gerhard. History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders. Translated by Thomas Dunlap. Chicago, USA: Chicago University Press, 1996.

3. Humphrey, Chris. “Time and Urban Culture in Late Medieval England.” In Time in the Medieval World, edited by Chris Humphrey and W.M. Ormrod, 105–17. UK: York Medieval Press, 2001.

4. Landes, David S. Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World. Cambridge, Mass, US: Harvard University Press, 1983.

5. Le Goff, Jacques. “Labor Time in The ‘Crisis’ of the Fourteenth Century: From Medieval Time to Modern Time.” In Time, Work & Culture in the Middle Ages, translated by Arthur Goldhammer, 43–57. Chicago, USA: Chicago University Press, 1980.

6. ———. “Merchant’s Time and Church’s Time in the Middle Ages.” In Time, Work & Culture in the Middle Ages, translated by Arthur Goldhammer, 29–42. Chicago, USA: Chicago University Press, 1980.

7. Thompson, E.P. “Time, Work Discipline and Industrial Capitalism.” In Customs in Common, 352–403. New York: The New Press, 1993.

8. Travis, Peter W. “Chaucer’s Chronographiae, the Confounded Reader, and Fourteenth Century Measurements of Time.” Northwestern University Press, no. 2 (1997): 1–34.

9. White, Lynn Jr. “The Iconography of Temperentia and the Virtuousness of Technology.” In Action and Conviction in Early Modern Europe. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press, 1969.

10. ———. “The Medieval Exploration of Mechanical Power and Devices.” In Medieval Technology and Social Change, 79–134. USA: Oxford University Press, 1962